Global Paste Adhesive Market 2026 by Manufacturers, Regions, Type and Application, Forecast to 2032
1 Market Overview
- 1.1 Product Overview and Scope
- 1.2 Market Estimation Caveats and Base Year
- 1.3 Market Analysis by Type
- 1.3.1 Overview: Global Paste Adhesive Consumption Value by Type: 2021 Versus 2025 Versus 2032
- 1.3.2 Rigid Paste Adhesive
- 1.3.3 Semi-Flexible Paste Adhesive
- 1.3.4 Flexible Paste Adhesive
- 1.4 Market Analysis by Viscosity
- 1.4.1 Overview: Global Paste Adhesive Consumption Value by Viscosity: 2021 Versus 2025 Versus 2032
- 1.4.2 10,000–50,000 cP
- 1.4.3 50,000–200,000 cP
- 1.4.4 >200,000 cP
- 1.5 Market Analysis by Application
- 1.5.1 Overview: Global Paste Adhesive Consumption Value by Application: 2021 Versus 2025 Versus 2032
- 1.5.2 Packaging
- 1.5.3 Construction
- 1.5.4 Automotive
- 1.5.5 Electronic
- 1.5.6 Healthcare
- 1.5.7 Aerospace
- 1.5.8 Consumer Good
- 1.5.9 Others
- 1.6 Global Paste Adhesive Market Size & Forecast
- 1.6.1 Global Paste Adhesive Consumption Value (2021 & 2025 & 2032)
- 1.6.2 Global Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity (2021-2032)
- 1.6.3 Global Paste Adhesive Average Price (2021-2032)
2 Manufacturers Profiles
- 2.1 Henkel (Germany)
- 2.1.1 Henkel (Germany) Details
- 2.1.2 Henkel (Germany) Major Business
- 2.1.3 Henkel (Germany) Paste Adhesive Product and Services
- 2.1.4 Henkel (Germany) Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
- 2.1.5 Henkel (Germany) Recent Developments/Updates
- 2.2 H.B. Fuller (USA)
- 2.2.1 H.B. Fuller (USA) Details
- 2.2.2 H.B. Fuller (USA) Major Business
- 2.2.3 H.B. Fuller (USA) Paste Adhesive Product and Services
- 2.2.4 H.B. Fuller (USA) Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
- 2.2.5 H.B. Fuller (USA) Recent Developments/Updates
- 2.3 Arkema (France)
- 2.3.1 Arkema (France) Details
- 2.3.2 Arkema (France) Major Business
- 2.3.3 Arkema (France) Paste Adhesive Product and Services
- 2.3.4 Arkema (France) Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
- 2.3.5 Arkema (France) Recent Developments/Updates
- 2.4 3M Company (USA)
- 2.4.1 3M Company (USA) Details
- 2.4.2 3M Company (USA) Major Business
- 2.4.3 3M Company (USA) Paste Adhesive Product and Services
- 2.4.4 3M Company (USA) Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
- 2.4.5 3M Company (USA) Recent Developments/Updates
- 2.5 Sika (Switzerland)
- 2.5.1 Sika (Switzerland) Details
- 2.5.2 Sika (Switzerland) Major Business
- 2.5.3 Sika (Switzerland) Paste Adhesive Product and Services
- 2.5.4 Sika (Switzerland) Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
- 2.5.5 Sika (Switzerland) Recent Developments/Updates
- 2.6 Bostik (France)
- 2.6.1 Bostik (France) Details
- 2.6.2 Bostik (France) Major Business
- 2.6.3 Bostik (France) Paste Adhesive Product and Services
- 2.6.4 Bostik (France) Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
- 2.6.5 Bostik (France) Recent Developments/Updates
- 2.7 Dow (USA)
- 2.7.1 Dow (USA) Details
- 2.7.2 Dow (USA) Major Business
- 2.7.3 Dow (USA) Paste Adhesive Product and Services
- 2.7.4 Dow (USA) Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
- 2.7.5 Dow (USA) Recent Developments/Updates
- 2.8 Ashland (USA)
- 2.8.1 Ashland (USA) Details
- 2.8.2 Ashland (USA) Major Business
- 2.8.3 Ashland (USA) Paste Adhesive Product and Services
- 2.8.4 Ashland (USA) Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
- 2.8.5 Ashland (USA) Recent Developments/Updates
- 2.9 Jowat (Germany)
- 2.9.1 Jowat (Germany) Details
- 2.9.2 Jowat (Germany) Major Business
- 2.9.3 Jowat (Germany) Paste Adhesive Product and Services
- 2.9.4 Jowat (Germany) Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
- 2.9.5 Jowat (Germany) Recent Developments/Updates
- 2.10 Mitsubishi Chemical (Japan)
- 2.10.1 Mitsubishi Chemical (Japan) Details
- 2.10.2 Mitsubishi Chemical (Japan) Major Business
- 2.10.3 Mitsubishi Chemical (Japan) Paste Adhesive Product and Services
- 2.10.4 Mitsubishi Chemical (Japan) Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
- 2.10.5 Mitsubishi Chemical (Japan) Recent Developments/Updates
- 2.11 Nitto Denko (Japan)
- 2.11.1 Nitto Denko (Japan) Details
- 2.11.2 Nitto Denko (Japan) Major Business
- 2.11.3 Nitto Denko (Japan) Paste Adhesive Product and Services
- 2.11.4 Nitto Denko (Japan) Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
- 2.11.5 Nitto Denko (Japan) Recent Developments/Updates
- 2.12 Pidilite (India)
- 2.12.1 Pidilite (India) Details
- 2.12.2 Pidilite (India) Major Business
- 2.12.3 Pidilite (India) Paste Adhesive Product and Services
- 2.12.4 Pidilite (India) Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
- 2.12.5 Pidilite (India) Recent Developments/Updates
- 2.13 Hexion (USA)
- 2.13.1 Hexion (USA) Details
- 2.13.2 Hexion (USA) Major Business
- 2.13.3 Hexion (USA) Paste Adhesive Product and Services
- 2.13.4 Hexion (USA) Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
- 2.13.5 Hexion (USA) Recent Developments/Updates
- 2.14 Wacker Chemie (Germany)
- 2.14.1 Wacker Chemie (Germany) Details
- 2.14.2 Wacker Chemie (Germany) Major Business
- 2.14.3 Wacker Chemie (Germany) Paste Adhesive Product and Services
- 2.14.4 Wacker Chemie (Germany) Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
- 2.14.5 Wacker Chemie (Germany) Recent Developments/Updates
- 2.15 DIC Corporation (Japan)
- 2.15.1 DIC Corporation (Japan) Details
- 2.15.2 DIC Corporation (Japan) Major Business
- 2.15.3 DIC Corporation (Japan) Paste Adhesive Product and Services
- 2.15.4 DIC Corporation (Japan) Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
- 2.15.5 DIC Corporation (Japan) Recent Developments/Updates
- 2.16 tesa (Germany)
- 2.16.1 tesa (Germany) Details
- 2.16.2 tesa (Germany) Major Business
- 2.16.3 tesa (Germany) Paste Adhesive Product and Services
- 2.16.4 tesa (Germany) Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
- 2.16.5 tesa (Germany) Recent Developments/Updates
- 2.17 Huitian New Materials (China)
- 2.17.1 Huitian New Materials (China) Details
- 2.17.2 Huitian New Materials (China) Major Business
- 2.17.3 Huitian New Materials (China) Paste Adhesive Product and Services
- 2.17.4 Huitian New Materials (China) Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
- 2.17.5 Huitian New Materials (China) Recent Developments/Updates
- 2.18 Kangda New Materials (China)
- 2.18.1 Kangda New Materials (China) Details
- 2.18.2 Kangda New Materials (China) Major Business
- 2.18.3 Kangda New Materials (China) Paste Adhesive Product and Services
- 2.18.4 Kangda New Materials (China) Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
- 2.18.5 Kangda New Materials (China) Recent Developments/Updates
- 2.19 Shanghai Tianyang (China)
- 2.19.1 Shanghai Tianyang (China) Details
- 2.19.2 Shanghai Tianyang (China) Major Business
- 2.19.3 Shanghai Tianyang (China) Paste Adhesive Product and Services
- 2.19.4 Shanghai Tianyang (China) Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
- 2.19.5 Shanghai Tianyang (China) Recent Developments/Updates
- 2.20 Comens Material (China)
- 2.20.1 Comens Material (China) Details
- 2.20.2 Comens Material (China) Major Business
- 2.20.3 Comens Material (China) Paste Adhesive Product and Services
- 2.20.4 Comens Material (China) Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
- 2.20.5 Comens Material (China) Recent Developments/Updates
- 2.21 Nan Pao Resins (Taiwan)
- 2.21.1 Nan Pao Resins (Taiwan) Details
- 2.21.2 Nan Pao Resins (Taiwan) Major Business
- 2.21.3 Nan Pao Resins (Taiwan) Paste Adhesive Product and Services
- 2.21.4 Nan Pao Resins (Taiwan) Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
- 2.21.5 Nan Pao Resins (Taiwan) Recent Developments/Updates
- 2.22 Tex Year Industries (Taiwan)
- 2.22.1 Tex Year Industries (Taiwan) Details
- 2.22.2 Tex Year Industries (Taiwan) Major Business
- 2.22.3 Tex Year Industries (Taiwan) Paste Adhesive Product and Services
- 2.22.4 Tex Year Industries (Taiwan) Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
- 2.22.5 Tex Year Industries (Taiwan) Recent Developments/Updates
3 Competitive Environment: Paste Adhesive by Manufacturer
- 3.1 Global Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity by Manufacturer (2021-2026)
- 3.2 Global Paste Adhesive Revenue by Manufacturer (2021-2026)
- 3.3 Global Paste Adhesive Average Price by Manufacturer (2021-2026)
- 3.4 Market Share Analysis (2025)
- 3.4.1 Producer Shipments of Paste Adhesive by Manufacturer Revenue ($MM) and Market Share (%): 2025
- 3.4.2 Top 3 Paste Adhesive Manufacturer Market Share in 2025
- 3.4.3 Top 6 Paste Adhesive Manufacturer Market Share in 2025
- 3.5 Paste Adhesive Market: Overall Company Footprint Analysis
- 3.5.1 Paste Adhesive Market: Region Footprint
- 3.5.2 Paste Adhesive Market: Company Product Type Footprint
- 3.5.3 Paste Adhesive Market: Company Product Application Footprint
- 3.6 New Market Entrants and Barriers to Market Entry
- 3.7 Mergers, Acquisition, Agreements, and Collaborations
4 Consumption Analysis by Region
- 4.1 Global Paste Adhesive Market Size by Region
- 4.1.1 Global Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity by Region (2021-2032)
- 4.1.2 Global Paste Adhesive Consumption Value by Region (2021-2032)
- 4.1.3 Global Paste Adhesive Average Price by Region (2021-2032)
- 4.2 North America Paste Adhesive Consumption Value (2021-2032)
- 4.3 Europe Paste Adhesive Consumption Value (2021-2032)
- 4.4 Asia-Pacific Paste Adhesive Consumption Value (2021-2032)
- 4.5 South America Paste Adhesive Consumption Value (2021-2032)
- 4.6 Middle East & Africa Paste Adhesive Consumption Value (2021-2032)
5 Market Segment by Type
- 5.1 Global Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity by Type (2021-2032)
- 5.2 Global Paste Adhesive Consumption Value by Type (2021-2032)
- 5.3 Global Paste Adhesive Average Price by Type (2021-2032)
6 Market Segment by Application
- 6.1 Global Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity by Application (2021-2032)
- 6.2 Global Paste Adhesive Consumption Value by Application (2021-2032)
- 6.3 Global Paste Adhesive Average Price by Application (2021-2032)
7 North America
- 7.1 North America Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity by Type (2021-2032)
- 7.2 North America Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity by Application (2021-2032)
- 7.3 North America Paste Adhesive Market Size by Country
- 7.3.1 North America Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity by Country (2021-2032)
- 7.3.2 North America Paste Adhesive Consumption Value by Country (2021-2032)
- 7.3.3 United States Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
- 7.3.4 Canada Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
- 7.3.5 Mexico Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
8 Europe
- 8.1 Europe Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity by Type (2021-2032)
- 8.2 Europe Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity by Application (2021-2032)
- 8.3 Europe Paste Adhesive Market Size by Country
- 8.3.1 Europe Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity by Country (2021-2032)
- 8.3.2 Europe Paste Adhesive Consumption Value by Country (2021-2032)
- 8.3.3 Germany Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
- 8.3.4 France Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
- 8.3.5 United Kingdom Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
- 8.3.6 Russia Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
- 8.3.7 Italy Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
9 Asia-Pacific
- 9.1 Asia-Pacific Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity by Type (2021-2032)
- 9.2 Asia-Pacific Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity by Application (2021-2032)
- 9.3 Asia-Pacific Paste Adhesive Market Size by Region
- 9.3.1 Asia-Pacific Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity by Region (2021-2032)
- 9.3.2 Asia-Pacific Paste Adhesive Consumption Value by Region (2021-2032)
- 9.3.3 China Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
- 9.3.4 Japan Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
- 9.3.5 South Korea Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
- 9.3.6 India Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
- 9.3.7 Southeast Asia Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
- 9.3.8 Australia Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
10 South America
- 10.1 South America Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity by Type (2021-2032)
- 10.2 South America Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity by Application (2021-2032)
- 10.3 South America Paste Adhesive Market Size by Country
- 10.3.1 South America Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity by Country (2021-2032)
- 10.3.2 South America Paste Adhesive Consumption Value by Country (2021-2032)
- 10.3.3 Brazil Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
- 10.3.4 Argentina Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
11 Middle East & Africa
- 11.1 Middle East & Africa Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity by Type (2021-2032)
- 11.2 Middle East & Africa Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity by Application (2021-2032)
- 11.3 Middle East & Africa Paste Adhesive Market Size by Country
- 11.3.1 Middle East & Africa Paste Adhesive Sales Quantity by Country (2021-2032)
- 11.3.2 Middle East & Africa Paste Adhesive Consumption Value by Country (2021-2032)
- 11.3.3 Turkey Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
- 11.3.4 Egypt Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
- 11.3.5 Saudi Arabia Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
- 11.3.6 South Africa Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
12 Market Dynamics
- 12.1 Paste Adhesive Market Drivers
- 12.2 Paste Adhesive Market Restraints
- 12.3 Paste Adhesive Trends Analysis
- 12.4 Porters Five Forces Analysis
- 12.4.1 Threat of New Entrants
- 12.4.2 Bargaining Power of Suppliers
- 12.4.3 Bargaining Power of Buyers
- 12.4.4 Threat of Substitutes
- 12.4.5 Competitive Rivalry
13 Raw Material and Industry Chain
- 13.1 Raw Material of Paste Adhesive and Key Manufacturers
- 13.2 Manufacturing Costs Percentage of Paste Adhesive
- 13.3 Paste Adhesive Production Process
- 13.4 Industry Value Chain Analysis
14 Shipments by Distribution Channel
- 14.1 Sales Channel
- 14.1.1 Direct to End-User
- 14.1.2 Distributors
- 14.2 Paste Adhesive Typical Distributors
- 14.3 Paste Adhesive Typical Customers
15 Research Findings and Conclusion
16 Appendix
- 16.1 Methodology
- 16.2 Research Process and Data Source
According to our (Global Info Research) latest study, the global Paste Adhesive market size was valued at US$ 12417 million in 2025 and is forecast to a readjusted size of US$ 17815 million by 2032 with a CAGR of 5.3% during review period.
Paste Adhesive is a high-viscosity bonding material formulated in a paste-like consistency, designed to provide strong adhesion, gap filling, sealing, and structural support across a wide range of industrial and consumer applications. These adhesives are commonly based on acrylic, epoxy, polyurethane, silicone, starch, rubber, polyvinyl acetate (PVA), or hot-melt chemistries, and may contain fillers, tackifiers, curing agents, plasticizers, and reinforcing additives to improve bonding strength, flexibility, temperature resistance, or chemical durability. Paste Adhesives are widely used in packaging, construction, woodworking, automotive assembly, electronics, footwear, paper converting, medical products, and aerospace manufacturing because they can bond uneven surfaces and remain stable during application. The supply chain begins upstream with petrochemical feedstocks, natural resins, polymers, solvents, mineral fillers, and specialty additives supplied by chemical manufacturers. Midstream activities include adhesive formulation, compounding, mixing, rheology control, quality testing, and packaging by adhesive producers into cartridges, pails, drums, syringes, or tubes. Downstream distribution involves industrial distributors, OEM supply channels, construction material suppliers, packaging converters, and retail networks, with final demand driven by industries requiring durable bonding, sealing, laminating, or assembly solutions. In 2025, global Paste Adhesive output was about 7 million tons with 8 million tons of capacity, average prices of USD 1,500–4,000 per ton, and gross margins around 25%.
This report is a detailed and comprehensive analysis for global Paste Adhesive market. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses are presented by manufacturers, by region & country, by Type and by Application. As the market is constantly changing, this report explores the competition, supply and demand trends, as well as key factors that contribute to its changing demands across many markets. Company profiles and product examples of selected competitors, along with market share estimates of some of the selected leaders for the year 2025, are provided.
Key Features:
Global Paste Adhesive market size and forecasts, in consumption value ($ Million), sales quantity (Kilotons), and average selling prices (US$/Ton), 2021-2032
Global Paste Adhesive market size and forecasts by region and country, in consumption value ($ Million), sales quantity (Kilotons), and average selling prices (US$/Ton), 2021-2032
Global Paste Adhesive market size and forecasts, by Type and by Application, in consumption value ($ Million), sales quantity (Kilotons), and average selling prices (US$/Ton), 2021-2032
Global Paste Adhesive market shares of main players, shipments in revenue ($ Million), sales quantity (Kilotons), and ASP (US$/Ton), 2021-2026
The Primary Objectives in This Report Are:
To determine the size of the total market opportunity of global and key countries
To assess the growth potential for Paste Adhesive
To forecast future growth in each product and end-use market
To assess competitive factors affecting the marketplace
This report profiles key players in the global Paste Adhesive market based on the following parameters - company overview, sales quantity, revenue, price, gross margin, product portfolio, geographical presence, and key developments. Key companies covered as a part of this study include Henkel (Germany), H.B. Fuller (USA), Arkema (France), 3M Company (USA), Sika (Switzerland), Bostik (France), Dow (USA), Ashland (USA), Jowat (Germany), Mitsubishi Chemical (Japan), etc.
This report also provides key insights about market drivers, restraints, opportunities, new product launches or approvals.
Market Segmentation
Paste Adhesive market is split by Type and by Application. For the period 2021-2032, the growth among segments provides accurate calculations and forecasts for consumption value by Type, and by Application in terms of volume and value. This analysis can help you expand your business by targeting qualified niche markets.
Market segment by Type
Rigid Paste Adhesive
Semi-Flexible Paste Adhesive
Flexible Paste Adhesive
Market segment by Viscosity
10,000–50,000 cP
50,000–200,000 cP
>200,000 cP
Market segment by Application
Packaging
Construction
Automotive
Electronic
Healthcare
Aerospace
Consumer Good
Others
Major players covered
Henkel (Germany)
H.B. Fuller (USA)
Arkema (France)
3M Company (USA)
Sika (Switzerland)
Bostik (France)
Dow (USA)
Ashland (USA)
Jowat (Germany)
Mitsubishi Chemical (Japan)
Nitto Denko (Japan)
Pidilite (India)
Hexion (USA)
Wacker Chemie (Germany)
DIC Corporation (Japan)
tesa (Germany)
Huitian New Materials (China)
Kangda New Materials (China)
Shanghai Tianyang (China)
Comens Material (China)
Nan Pao Resins (Taiwan)
Tex Year Industries (Taiwan)
Market segment by region, regional analysis covers
North America (United States, Canada, and Mexico)
Europe (Germany, France, United Kingdom, Russia, Italy, and Rest of Europe)
Asia-Pacific (China, Japan, Korea, India, Southeast Asia, and Australia)
South America (Brazil, Argentina, Colombia, and Rest of South America)
Middle East & Africa (Saudi Arabia, UAE, Egypt, South Africa, and Rest of Middle East & Africa)
The content of the study subjects, includes a total of 15 chapters:
Chapter 1, to describe Paste Adhesive product scope, market overview, market estimation caveats and base year.
Chapter 2, to profile the top manufacturers of Paste Adhesive, with price, sales quantity, revenue, and global market share of Paste Adhesive from 2021 to 2026.
Chapter 3, the Paste Adhesive competitive situation, sales quantity, revenue, and global market share of top manufacturers are analyzed emphatically by landscape contrast.
Chapter 4, the Paste Adhesive breakdown data are shown at the regional level, to show the sales quantity, consumption value, and growth by regions, from 2021 to 2032.
Chapter 5 and 6, to segment the sales by Type and by Application, with sales market share and growth rate by Type, by Application, from 2021 to 2032.
Chapter 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11, to break the sales data at the country level, with sales quantity, consumption value, and market share for key countries in the world, from 2021 to 2026.and Paste Adhesive market forecast, by regions, by Type, and by Application, with sales and revenue, from 2027 to 2032.
Chapter 12, market dynamics, drivers, restraints, trends, and Porters Five Forces analysis.
Chapter 13, the key raw materials and key suppliers, and industry chain of Paste Adhesive.
Chapter 14 and 15, to describe Paste Adhesive sales channel, distributors, customers, research findings and conclusion.