Copyright Reports & Markets. All rights reserved.

Global 8-inch Wafer Market 2026 by Manufacturers, Regions, Type and Application, Forecast to 2032

Buy now

1 Market Overview

  • 1.1 Product Overview and Scope
  • 1.2 Market Estimation Caveats and Base Year
  • 1.3 Market Analysis by Type
    • 1.3.1 Overview: Global 8-inch Wafer Consumption Value by Type: 2021 Versus 2025 Versus 2032
    • 1.3.2 8-inch Polished Wafer
    • 1.3.3 8-inch Epitaxial Wafer
    • 1.3.4 8-inch Annealed Wafer
    • 1.3.5 8-inch SOI Wafer
  • 1.4 Market Analysis by Application
    • 1.4.1 Overview: Global 8-inch Wafer Consumption Value by Application: 2021 Versus 2025 Versus 2032
    • 1.4.2 Power/Discrete Devices
    • 1.4.3 Analog Ics
    • 1.4.4 Logic IC
    • 1.4.5 Sensor
    • 1.4.6 Others
  • 1.5 Global 8-inch Wafer Market Size & Forecast
    • 1.5.1 Global 8-inch Wafer Consumption Value (2021 & 2025 & 2032)
    • 1.5.2 Global 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity (2021-2032)
    • 1.5.3 Global 8-inch Wafer Average Price (2021-2032)

2 Manufacturers Profiles

  • 2.1 Shin-Etsu Chemical
    • 2.1.1 Shin-Etsu Chemical Details
    • 2.1.2 Shin-Etsu Chemical Major Business
    • 2.1.3 Shin-Etsu Chemical 8-inch Wafer Product and Services
    • 2.1.4 Shin-Etsu Chemical 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
    • 2.1.5 Shin-Etsu Chemical Recent Developments/Updates
  • 2.2 SUMCO
    • 2.2.1 SUMCO Details
    • 2.2.2 SUMCO Major Business
    • 2.2.3 SUMCO 8-inch Wafer Product and Services
    • 2.2.4 SUMCO 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
    • 2.2.5 SUMCO Recent Developments/Updates
  • 2.3 GlobalWafers
    • 2.3.1 GlobalWafers Details
    • 2.3.2 GlobalWafers Major Business
    • 2.3.3 GlobalWafers 8-inch Wafer Product and Services
    • 2.3.4 GlobalWafers 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
    • 2.3.5 GlobalWafers Recent Developments/Updates
  • 2.4 Siltronic AG
    • 2.4.1 Siltronic AG Details
    • 2.4.2 Siltronic AG Major Business
    • 2.4.3 Siltronic AG 8-inch Wafer Product and Services
    • 2.4.4 Siltronic AG 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
    • 2.4.5 Siltronic AG Recent Developments/Updates
  • 2.5 SK Siltron
    • 2.5.1 SK Siltron Details
    • 2.5.2 SK Siltron Major Business
    • 2.5.3 SK Siltron 8-inch Wafer Product and Services
    • 2.5.4 SK Siltron 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
    • 2.5.5 SK Siltron Recent Developments/Updates
  • 2.6 FST Corporation
    • 2.6.1 FST Corporation Details
    • 2.6.2 FST Corporation Major Business
    • 2.6.3 FST Corporation 8-inch Wafer Product and Services
    • 2.6.4 FST Corporation 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
    • 2.6.5 FST Corporation Recent Developments/Updates
  • 2.7 Wafer Works Corporation
    • 2.7.1 Wafer Works Corporation Details
    • 2.7.2 Wafer Works Corporation Major Business
    • 2.7.3 Wafer Works Corporation 8-inch Wafer Product and Services
    • 2.7.4 Wafer Works Corporation 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
    • 2.7.5 Wafer Works Corporation Recent Developments/Updates
  • 2.8 National Silicon Industry Group (NSIG)
    • 2.8.1 National Silicon Industry Group (NSIG) Details
    • 2.8.2 National Silicon Industry Group (NSIG) Major Business
    • 2.8.3 National Silicon Industry Group (NSIG) 8-inch Wafer Product and Services
    • 2.8.4 National Silicon Industry Group (NSIG) 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
    • 2.8.5 National Silicon Industry Group (NSIG) Recent Developments/Updates
  • 2.9 Zhonghuan Advanced Semiconductor Materials
    • 2.9.1 Zhonghuan Advanced Semiconductor Materials Details
    • 2.9.2 Zhonghuan Advanced Semiconductor Materials Major Business
    • 2.9.3 Zhonghuan Advanced Semiconductor Materials 8-inch Wafer Product and Services
    • 2.9.4 Zhonghuan Advanced Semiconductor Materials 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
    • 2.9.5 Zhonghuan Advanced Semiconductor Materials Recent Developments/Updates
  • 2.10 Hangzhou Lion Microelectronics
    • 2.10.1 Hangzhou Lion Microelectronics Details
    • 2.10.2 Hangzhou Lion Microelectronics Major Business
    • 2.10.3 Hangzhou Lion Microelectronics 8-inch Wafer Product and Services
    • 2.10.4 Hangzhou Lion Microelectronics 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
    • 2.10.5 Hangzhou Lion Microelectronics Recent Developments/Updates
  • 2.11 Hangzhou Semiconductor Wafer
    • 2.11.1 Hangzhou Semiconductor Wafer Details
    • 2.11.2 Hangzhou Semiconductor Wafer Major Business
    • 2.11.3 Hangzhou Semiconductor Wafer 8-inch Wafer Product and Services
    • 2.11.4 Hangzhou Semiconductor Wafer 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
    • 2.11.5 Hangzhou Semiconductor Wafer Recent Developments/Updates
  • 2.12 GRINM Semiconductor Materials
    • 2.12.1 GRINM Semiconductor Materials Details
    • 2.12.2 GRINM Semiconductor Materials Major Business
    • 2.12.3 GRINM Semiconductor Materials 8-inch Wafer Product and Services
    • 2.12.4 GRINM Semiconductor Materials 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
    • 2.12.5 GRINM Semiconductor Materials Recent Developments/Updates
  • 2.13 Shanghai Advanced Silicon Technology (AST)
    • 2.13.1 Shanghai Advanced Silicon Technology (AST) Details
    • 2.13.2 Shanghai Advanced Silicon Technology (AST) Major Business
    • 2.13.3 Shanghai Advanced Silicon Technology (AST) 8-inch Wafer Product and Services
    • 2.13.4 Shanghai Advanced Silicon Technology (AST) 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
    • 2.13.5 Shanghai Advanced Silicon Technology (AST) Recent Developments/Updates
  • 2.14 XiAn ESWIN Technology Group
    • 2.14.1 XiAn ESWIN Technology Group Details
    • 2.14.2 XiAn ESWIN Technology Group Major Business
    • 2.14.3 XiAn ESWIN Technology Group 8-inch Wafer Product and Services
    • 2.14.4 XiAn ESWIN Technology Group 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
    • 2.14.5 XiAn ESWIN Technology Group Recent Developments/Updates
  • 2.15 Soitec
    • 2.15.1 Soitec Details
    • 2.15.2 Soitec Major Business
    • 2.15.3 Soitec 8-inch Wafer Product and Services
    • 2.15.4 Soitec 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
    • 2.15.5 Soitec Recent Developments/Updates
  • 2.16 Zhejiang MTCN Technology
    • 2.16.1 Zhejiang MTCN Technology Details
    • 2.16.2 Zhejiang MTCN Technology Major Business
    • 2.16.3 Zhejiang MTCN Technology 8-inch Wafer Product and Services
    • 2.16.4 Zhejiang MTCN Technology 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
    • 2.16.5 Zhejiang MTCN Technology Recent Developments/Updates
  • 2.17 Hebei Puxing Electronic Technology
    • 2.17.1 Hebei Puxing Electronic Technology Details
    • 2.17.2 Hebei Puxing Electronic Technology Major Business
    • 2.17.3 Hebei Puxing Electronic Technology 8-inch Wafer Product and Services
    • 2.17.4 Hebei Puxing Electronic Technology 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
    • 2.17.5 Hebei Puxing Electronic Technology Recent Developments/Updates
  • 2.18 Nanjing Guosheng Electronics
    • 2.18.1 Nanjing Guosheng Electronics Details
    • 2.18.2 Nanjing Guosheng Electronics Major Business
    • 2.18.3 Nanjing Guosheng Electronics 8-inch Wafer Product and Services
    • 2.18.4 Nanjing Guosheng Electronics 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
    • 2.18.5 Nanjing Guosheng Electronics Recent Developments/Updates
  • 2.19 MCL Electronic Materials
    • 2.19.1 MCL Electronic Materials Details
    • 2.19.2 MCL Electronic Materials Major Business
    • 2.19.3 MCL Electronic Materials 8-inch Wafer Product and Services
    • 2.19.4 MCL Electronic Materials 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity, Average Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share (2021-2026)
    • 2.19.5 MCL Electronic Materials Recent Developments/Updates

3 Competitive Environment: 8-inch Wafer by Manufacturer

  • 3.1 Global 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity by Manufacturer (2021-2026)
  • 3.2 Global 8-inch Wafer Revenue by Manufacturer (2021-2026)
  • 3.3 Global 8-inch Wafer Average Price by Manufacturer (2021-2026)
  • 3.4 Market Share Analysis (2025)
    • 3.4.1 Producer Shipments of 8-inch Wafer by Manufacturer Revenue ($MM) and Market Share (%): 2025
    • 3.4.2 Top 3 8-inch Wafer Manufacturer Market Share in 2025
    • 3.4.3 Top 6 8-inch Wafer Manufacturer Market Share in 2025
  • 3.5 8-inch Wafer Market: Overall Company Footprint Analysis
    • 3.5.1 8-inch Wafer Market: Region Footprint
    • 3.5.2 8-inch Wafer Market: Company Product Type Footprint
    • 3.5.3 8-inch Wafer Market: Company Product Application Footprint
  • 3.6 New Market Entrants and Barriers to Market Entry
  • 3.7 Mergers, Acquisition, Agreements, and Collaborations

4 Consumption Analysis by Region

  • 4.1 Global 8-inch Wafer Market Size by Region
    • 4.1.1 Global 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity by Region (2021-2032)
    • 4.1.2 Global 8-inch Wafer Consumption Value by Region (2021-2032)
    • 4.1.3 Global 8-inch Wafer Average Price by Region (2021-2032)
  • 4.2 North America 8-inch Wafer Consumption Value (2021-2032)
  • 4.3 Europe 8-inch Wafer Consumption Value (2021-2032)
  • 4.4 Asia-Pacific 8-inch Wafer Consumption Value (2021-2032)
  • 4.5 South America 8-inch Wafer Consumption Value (2021-2032)
  • 4.6 Middle East & Africa 8-inch Wafer Consumption Value (2021-2032)

5 Market Segment by Type

  • 5.1 Global 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity by Type (2021-2032)
  • 5.2 Global 8-inch Wafer Consumption Value by Type (2021-2032)
  • 5.3 Global 8-inch Wafer Average Price by Type (2021-2032)

6 Market Segment by Application

  • 6.1 Global 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity by Application (2021-2032)
  • 6.2 Global 8-inch Wafer Consumption Value by Application (2021-2032)
  • 6.3 Global 8-inch Wafer Average Price by Application (2021-2032)

7 North America

  • 7.1 North America 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity by Type (2021-2032)
  • 7.2 North America 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity by Application (2021-2032)
  • 7.3 North America 8-inch Wafer Market Size by Country
    • 7.3.1 North America 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity by Country (2021-2032)
    • 7.3.2 North America 8-inch Wafer Consumption Value by Country (2021-2032)
    • 7.3.3 United States Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
    • 7.3.4 Canada Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
    • 7.3.5 Mexico Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)

8 Europe

  • 8.1 Europe 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity by Type (2021-2032)
  • 8.2 Europe 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity by Application (2021-2032)
  • 8.3 Europe 8-inch Wafer Market Size by Country
    • 8.3.1 Europe 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity by Country (2021-2032)
    • 8.3.2 Europe 8-inch Wafer Consumption Value by Country (2021-2032)
    • 8.3.3 Germany Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
    • 8.3.4 France Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
    • 8.3.5 United Kingdom Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
    • 8.3.6 Russia Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
    • 8.3.7 Italy Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)

9 Asia-Pacific

  • 9.1 Asia-Pacific 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity by Type (2021-2032)
  • 9.2 Asia-Pacific 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity by Application (2021-2032)
  • 9.3 Asia-Pacific 8-inch Wafer Market Size by Region
    • 9.3.1 Asia-Pacific 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity by Region (2021-2032)
    • 9.3.2 Asia-Pacific 8-inch Wafer Consumption Value by Region (2021-2032)
    • 9.3.3 China Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
    • 9.3.4 Japan Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
    • 9.3.5 South Korea Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
    • 9.3.6 India Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
    • 9.3.7 Southeast Asia Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
    • 9.3.8 Australia Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)

10 South America

  • 10.1 South America 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity by Type (2021-2032)
  • 10.2 South America 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity by Application (2021-2032)
  • 10.3 South America 8-inch Wafer Market Size by Country
    • 10.3.1 South America 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity by Country (2021-2032)
    • 10.3.2 South America 8-inch Wafer Consumption Value by Country (2021-2032)
    • 10.3.3 Brazil Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
    • 10.3.4 Argentina Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)

11 Middle East & Africa

  • 11.1 Middle East & Africa 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity by Type (2021-2032)
  • 11.2 Middle East & Africa 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity by Application (2021-2032)
  • 11.3 Middle East & Africa 8-inch Wafer Market Size by Country
    • 11.3.1 Middle East & Africa 8-inch Wafer Sales Quantity by Country (2021-2032)
    • 11.3.2 Middle East & Africa 8-inch Wafer Consumption Value by Country (2021-2032)
    • 11.3.3 Turkey Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
    • 11.3.4 Egypt Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
    • 11.3.5 Saudi Arabia Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)
    • 11.3.6 South Africa Market Size and Forecast (2021-2032)

12 Market Dynamics

  • 12.1 8-inch Wafer Market Drivers
  • 12.2 8-inch Wafer Market Restraints
  • 12.3 8-inch Wafer Trends Analysis
  • 12.4 Porters Five Forces Analysis
    • 12.4.1 Threat of New Entrants
    • 12.4.2 Bargaining Power of Suppliers
    • 12.4.3 Bargaining Power of Buyers
    • 12.4.4 Threat of Substitutes
    • 12.4.5 Competitive Rivalry

13 Raw Material and Industry Chain

  • 13.1 Raw Material of 8-inch Wafer and Key Manufacturers
  • 13.2 Manufacturing Costs Percentage of 8-inch Wafer
  • 13.3 8-inch Wafer Production Process
  • 13.4 Industry Value Chain Analysis

14 Shipments by Distribution Channel

  • 14.1 Sales Channel
    • 14.1.1 Direct to End-User
    • 14.1.2 Distributors
  • 14.2 8-inch Wafer Typical Distributors
  • 14.3 8-inch Wafer Typical Customers

15 Research Findings and Conclusion

    16 Appendix

    • 16.1 Methodology
    • 16.2 Research Process and Data Source

    According to our (Global Info Research) latest study, the global 8-inch Wafer market size was valued at US$ 3614 million in 2025 and is forecast to a readjusted size of US$ 5839 million by 2032 with a CAGR of 7.2% during review period.
    Semiconductor silicon wafers are key component of integrated circuits such as those used to power computers, cell phones, and a wide variety of other devices. A silicon wafer consists of a thin slice of silicon which can be treated in various ways, depending on the type of electronics that is being used. Silicon has a very high quality semiconductor, making it ideal for the production of such circuits.
    This report studies the 200mm/8inch semiconductor silicon wafers, including the 200mm polished wafer, 200mm epitaxial wafer, 200mm lapped/etched wafer, etc. Lowly-doped and highly-doped wafer, etc. Currently the 200mm wafers are mainly used in Logic, Analog, Discrete, Micro-processors, Image Sensors, Power- and Optoelectronics, IGBTs.
    Currently the key manufacturers of 200mm/8inch silicon wafers include Shin-Etsu Chemical, SUMCO, GlobalWafers, SK Siltron, Siltronic AG, FST Corporation, National Silicon Industry Group (NSIG), Zhonghuan Advanced Semiconductor Materials, Wafer Works Corporation, Zhejiang Jinruihong Technologies, and Hangzhou Semiconductor Wafer (CCMC), the global Top 10 players hold a share about 88%.
    The global market for semiconductor was estimated at US$ 526.8 billion in the year 2023, is projected to US$ 780.7 billion by 2030. IC Manufacturing is the process used to manufacture semiconductor devices, typically integrated circuits (ICs) such as computer processors, microcontrollers, and memory chips (such as NAND flash and DRAM). According to our research, the global semiconductor manufacturing (wafer fabrication) market is projected to grow from US$ 251.7 billion in 2023 to US$ 506.5 billion by 2030, at a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 40.49% during the forecast period. This will drive rapid growth of global 200mm Silicon Wafers.
    This report is a detailed and comprehensive analysis for global 8-inch Wafer market. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses are presented by manufacturers, by region & country, by Type and by Application. As the market is constantly changing, this report explores the competition, supply and demand trends, as well as key factors that contribute to its changing demands across many markets. Company profiles and product examples of selected competitors, along with market share estimates of some of the selected leaders for the year 2025, are provided.
    Key Features:
    Global 8-inch Wafer market size and forecasts, in consumption value ($ Million), sales quantity (K Pcs), and average selling prices (US$/Pcs), 2021-2032
    Global 8-inch Wafer market size and forecasts by region and country, in consumption value ($ Million), sales quantity (K Pcs), and average selling prices (US$/Pcs), 2021-2032
    Global 8-inch Wafer market size and forecasts, by Type and by Application, in consumption value ($ Million), sales quantity (K Pcs), and average selling prices (US$/Pcs), 2021-2032
    Global 8-inch Wafer market shares of main players, shipments in revenue ($ Million), sales quantity (K Pcs), and ASP (US$/Pcs), 2021-2026
    The Primary Objectives in This Report Are:
    To determine the size of the total market opportunity of global and key countries
    To assess the growth potential for 8-inch Wafer
    To forecast future growth in each product and end-use market
    To assess competitive factors affecting the marketplace
    This report profiles key players in the global 8-inch Wafer market based on the following parameters - company overview, sales quantity, revenue, price, gross margin, product portfolio, geographical presence, and key developments. Key companies covered as a part of this study include Shin-Etsu Chemical, SUMCO, GlobalWafers, Siltronic AG, SK Siltron, FST Corporation, Wafer Works Corporation, National Silicon Industry Group (NSIG), Zhonghuan Advanced Semiconductor Materials, Hangzhou Lion Microelectronics, etc.
    This report also provides key insights about market drivers, restraints, opportunities, new product launches or approvals.
    Market Segmentation
    8-inch Wafer market is split by Type and by Application. For the period 2021-2032, the growth among segments provides accurate calculations and forecasts for consumption value by Type, and by Application in terms of volume and value. This analysis can help you expand your business by targeting qualified niche markets.
    Market segment by Type
    8-inch Polished Wafer
    8-inch Epitaxial Wafer
    8-inch Annealed Wafer
    8-inch SOI Wafer
    Market segment by Application
    Power/Discrete Devices
    Analog Ics
    Logic IC
    Sensor
    Others
    Major players covered
    Shin-Etsu Chemical
    SUMCO
    GlobalWafers
    Siltronic AG
    SK Siltron
    FST Corporation
    Wafer Works Corporation
    National Silicon Industry Group (NSIG)
    Zhonghuan Advanced Semiconductor Materials
    Hangzhou Lion Microelectronics
    Hangzhou Semiconductor Wafer
    GRINM Semiconductor Materials
    Shanghai Advanced Silicon Technology (AST)
    XiAn ESWIN Technology Group
    Soitec
    Zhejiang MTCN Technology
    Hebei Puxing Electronic Technology
    Nanjing Guosheng Electronics
    MCL Electronic Materials
    Market segment by region, regional analysis covers
    North America (United States, Canada, and Mexico)
    Europe (Germany, France, United Kingdom, Russia, Italy, and Rest of Europe)
    Asia-Pacific (China, Japan, Korea, India, Southeast Asia, and Australia)
    South America (Brazil, Argentina, Colombia, and Rest of South America)
    Middle East & Africa (Saudi Arabia, UAE, Egypt, South Africa, and Rest of Middle East & Africa)
    The content of the study subjects, includes a total of 15 chapters:
    Chapter 1, to describe 8-inch Wafer product scope, market overview, market estimation caveats and base year.
    Chapter 2, to profile the top manufacturers of 8-inch Wafer, with price, sales quantity, revenue, and global market share of 8-inch Wafer from 2021 to 2026.
    Chapter 3, the 8-inch Wafer competitive situation, sales quantity, revenue, and global market share of top manufacturers are analyzed emphatically by landscape contrast.
    Chapter 4, the 8-inch Wafer breakdown data are shown at the regional level, to show the sales quantity, consumption value, and growth by regions, from 2021 to 2032.
    Chapter 5 and 6, to segment the sales by Type and by Application, with sales market share and growth rate by Type, by Application, from 2021 to 2032.
    Chapter 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11, to break the sales data at the country level, with sales quantity, consumption value, and market share for key countries in the world, from 2021 to 2026.and 8-inch Wafer market forecast, by regions, by Type, and by Application, with sales and revenue, from 2027 to 2032.
    Chapter 12, market dynamics, drivers, restraints, trends, and Porters Five Forces analysis.
    Chapter 13, the key raw materials and key suppliers, and industry chain of 8-inch Wafer.
    Chapter 14 and 15, to describe 8-inch Wafer sales channel, distributors, customers, research findings and conclusion.

    Buy now